Die extrakorporale Membranoxygenierung (ECMO) und die extrakorporale Lungenunterstützung (oder extrakorporale Lungenassistenz, ECLA) sind in der Intensivmedizin eingesetzte Unterstützungssysteme, bei denen eine Maschine teilweise oder vollständig Atemfunktionsleistungen für den Patienten außerhalb seines Körpers übernimmt. Dabei wird zwischen veno-venösen und arterio-venösen The terms underground press or clandestine press refer to periodicals and publications that are produced without official approval, illegally or against the wishes of a dominant (governmental, religious, or institutional) group. In specific recent (post-World War II) Asian, American and Western European context, the term "underground press" has most frequently been employed to refer to the Lawrence Page was born in East Lansing, Michigan, and received a B.S.E. in Computer Engineering at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor in He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Computer Science at Stanford University
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Lean manufacturing also known as lean productionjust-in-time manufacturing and just-in-time productionor JIT is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It is derived from Toyota 's operating model " The Toyota Way " Toyota Production SystemTPS.
Companies employ the strategy to increase efficiency. By receiving goods only as they need them for the production process, it reduces inventory costs and wastage, and increases productivity and profit. The downside is that it requires producers to forecast demand accurately as the benefits can be nullified by minor delays in the supply chain. It may also impact negatively on workers due to added stress and inflexible conditions.
A successful operation depends on a company having regular outputs, high-quality processes, and reliable suppliers. Fredrick Taylor and Henry Ford documented their observations relating to these topics, and Shigeo Shingo and Taiichi Ohno applied their enhanced thoughts on the subject at Toyota in the s.
The resulting methods were researched from the midth century and dubbed "Lean" by John Krafcik inand then were defined in The Machine that Changed the World [4] [ page needed ] and further detailed by James Womack and Daniel Jones in Lean Thinking The exact reasons for adoption of JIT in Japan are unclear, but it has been suggested it started with a requirement to solve the lack of standardization.
Plenert offers four reasons, paraphrased here. During Japan's post—World War II rebuilding of industry: 1 Japan's lack of cash made it difficult for industry to finance the dissertation services uk ann arbor, large inventory production methods common elsewhere. Thus the Japanese "leaned out" their processes. in which the only materials housed in the factory were those on which work was currently being done. In this way, inventory levels were kept low, investment in in-process inventories was at a minimum, and the investment in purchased natural resources was quickly turned around so that additional materials were purchased.
American industrialists recognized the threat of cheap offshore labor to American dissertation services uk ann arbor during the s, and explicitly stated the goal of what is now called lean dissertation services uk ann arbor as a countermeasure.
Henry Towne, past President of the American Society of Mechanical Engineerswrote in the foreword to Frederick Winslow Taylor's Shop Management"We are justly proud of the high wage rates which prevail throughout our country, and jealous of any interference with them by the products of the cheaper labor of other countries.
To maintain this condition, to strengthen our control of home markets, and, above all, to broaden our opportunities in foreign markets where we must compete with the products of other industrial nations, we should welcome and encourage every influence tending to increase the efficiency of our productive processes.
Continuous production improvement and incentives for such were documented in Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management :. Shigeo Shingo cites reading Principles of Scientific Management in and being "greatly impressed to make the study and practice of scientific management his life's work". Shingo and Taiichi Ohno were key to the design of Toyota's manufacturing process.
Previously a textile company, Toyota moved dissertation services uk ann arbor building automobiles in Kiichiro Toyodafounder of Toyota Motor Corporation, directed the engine casting work and discovered many problems in their manufacturing, with wasted resources on repair of poor-quality castings.
Toyota engaged in intense study of each stage of the process. Inwhen Toyota won its first truck contract with the Japanese government, the processes encountered new problems, to which Toyota responded by developing " Kaizen " improvement teams, into what has become the Toyota Production System TPSand subsequently The Toyota Way. Levels of demand in the postwar economy of Japan were low; as a result, the focus of mass production on lowest cost per item via economies of scale had little application.
Having visited and seen supermarkets in the United States, Ohno recognised that scheduling of work should not be driven by sales or production targets but by actual sales. Given the financial situation during this period, over-production had to be avoided, and thus the notion of "pull" or "build-to-order" rather than target-driven "push" came to underpin production scheduling.
Just-in-time manufacturing was introduced in Australia in the s by the British Motor Corporation Australia at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota.
A seminal event was a conference in Detroit at Ford World Headquarters co-sponsored by the Repetitive Manufacturing Group RMGwhich had been founded within the American Production and Inventory Control Society APICS to seek advances in manufacturing. The principal speaker, Fujio Cho later, president of Toyota Motor Corp.
At least some of audience's stirring had to do with a dissertation services uk ann arbor clash between the new JIT regime and manufacturing resource planning MRP IIa computer software-based system of manufacturing planning and control which had become prominent in industry in the s and s. Debates in professional meetings on JIT vs.
MRP II were followed by published articles, one of them titled, "The Rise and Fall of Just-in-Time". An article in a issue of Inc. magazine [19] relates how Omark Industries chain saws, ammunition, log loaders, etc. emerged as an extensive JIT implementer under its US home-grown name ZIPS zero inventory production system. At Omark's mother plant in Portland, Oregonafter the work force had received 40 hours of ZIPS training, they were "turned loose" and things began to happen.
A first step was to "arbitrarily eliminate a week's lead time [after which] things ran smoother. from order to finished product was slashed from three weeks to three days, dissertation services uk ann arbor.
Bya case-study book on JIT in the U. Two similar, contemporaneous books from the U. are more international in scope. The second book, reporting on what was billed as the First International Conference on just-in-time manufacturing, [22] includes case studies in three companies: Repco-Australia, dissertation services uk ann arbor, IBM-UK, and 3M-UK. In addition, a day two keynote address discussed JIT as applied "across all disciplines, from accounting and systems to design and production".
John Krafcik coined the term "Lean" in his article, "Triumph of the Lean Production System". According to the article, dissertation services uk ann arbor, risks with implementing Lean can be reduced by: "developing a well-trained, flexible workforce, product designs that are easy to build with high quality, and a supportive, dissertation services uk ann arbor, high-performance supplier network" page The same period, saw the rise of books and articles with similar concepts and methodologies but with alternative names, including cycle time management[28] time-based competition[29] quick-response manufacturing[30] flow, [31] and pull-based production systems.
There is more to JIT than its usual manufacturing-centered explication, dissertation services uk ann arbor. Inasmuch as manufacturing ends with order-fulfillment to distributors, retailers, and end users, and also includes remanufacturing, repair, dissertation services uk ann arbor, and warranty claims, JIT's concepts and methods have application downstream from manufacturing itself.
A book on "world-class distribution logistics" discusses kanban links from factories onward. in the s, referred to as quick response[34] has morphed over time to what is called fast fashion. The strategic elements of lean can be quite complex, and comprise multiple elements. Four different notions of lean dissertation services uk ann arbor been identified: [37].
The other way to avoid market risk and control the supply efficiently is to cut down in stock. InSpear and Bowen [39] identified four rules which characterize the "Toyota DNA":. This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires more persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of popularity. Sepheri provides a list of methodologies of JIT manufacturing that "are important but not exhaustive": [41].
Womack and Jones define Lean as " a way to do more and more with less and less—less human effort, less equipment, less time, dissertation services uk ann arbor, and less space—while coming closer and closer to providing customers exactly what they want" and then translate this into five key principles: [42].
Lean is founded on the concept of continuous and incremental improvements on product and process while eliminating redundant activities. On principle 2, waste, see seven basic waste types under The Toyota Way. Additional waste types are:.
One paper suggests that an organization implementing Lean needs its own Lean plan as developed by the "Lean Leadership". This should enable Lean teams to provide suggestions for their managers who then makes the actual decisions about what to implement. Coaching is recommended when an organization starts off with Lean to impart knowledge and skills to shop-floor staff.
Improvement metrics are required for informed decision-making. Lean philosophy and culture is as important as tools and methodologies. Management should not decide on solutions without understanding the true problem by consulting shop floor personnel.
The solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not have generalised application. The solution must fit the problem. Value-stream mapping VSM and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps to Lean. Lean can be focused on specific processes, or cover the entire supply chain. Front-line workers should be involved in VSM activities, dissertation services uk ann arbor. Implementing a series of small improvements incrementally along the supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.
Alternative terms for JIT manufacturing have been used. Motorola 's choice was short-cycle manufacturing SCM. The wide use of the term JIT manufacturing throughout the s faded fast in the s, as the new term lean manufacturing became established [54] [55] [ need quotation to verify ] as "a more recent name for JIT". Objectives and benefits of JIT manufacturing may be stated in two primary ways: first, in specific and quantitative terms, via published case studies; second, general listings and discussion.
This was achieved via four focused cellular factories, pull scheduling, kanban, dissertation services uk ann arbor, visual management, and employee empowerment.
Hewlett-Packard, one of western industry's earliest JIT implementers, provides a set of four case studies from four H-P divisions during the mids.
At the time about half of H-P's 52 divisions had adopted JIT. Lean principles have been successfully applied to various sectors and services, such as call centers and healthcare. In the former, lean's waste reduction practices have been used to reduce handle time, within and between agent variation, accent barriers, as well as attain near perfect process adherence.
Lean principles also have applications to software development and maintenance as well as other sectors of information technology IT. The challenge in moving lean to services is the lack of widely available reference implementations to allow people to see how directly applying lean manufacturing tools and practices can work and the impact it does have. This makes it more difficult to build the level of belief seen as necessary for strong implementation. However, some research does relate widely recognized examples of dissertation services uk ann arbor in retail and even airlines to the underlying principles of lean.
The upshot of this is that each implementation often 'feels its way' along as must the early industrial engineering practices of Toyota. This places huge importance upon sponsorship to encourage and protect these experimental developments. Lean management is nowadays implemented also in non-manufacturing processes and administrative processes. In non-manufacturing processes is still huge potential for optimization and efficiency increase. According to Williams, it becomes necessary to find suppliers that are close by or can supply materials quickly with limited advance notice.
When ordering small quantities of materials, suppliers' minimum order policies may pose a problem, though. Employees are at risk of precarious work when employed by factories that utilize just-in-time and flexible production techniques.
A longitudinal study of US workers since indicates employers seeking to easily adjust their workforce in response to supply and demand conditions respond by creating more nonstandard work arrangements, such as contracting and temporary work.
Natural and man-made disasters will disrupt the flow of energy, goods and services. The down-stream customers of dissertation services uk ann arbor goods and services will, in turn, not be able to produce their product or render their service because they were counting on incoming deliveries "just in time" and so have little or no inventory to work with.
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Lean manufacturing (also known as lean production, just-in-time manufacturing and just-in-time production, or JIT) is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.. It is derived from Toyota's operating model "The Toyota Way" (Toyota Production System, TPS) The terms underground press or clandestine press refer to periodicals and publications that are produced without official approval, illegally or against the wishes of a dominant (governmental, religious, or institutional) group. In specific recent (post-World War II) Asian, American and Western European context, the term "underground press" has most frequently been employed to refer to the Die extrakorporale Membranoxygenierung (ECMO) und die extrakorporale Lungenunterstützung (oder extrakorporale Lungenassistenz, ECLA) sind in der Intensivmedizin eingesetzte Unterstützungssysteme, bei denen eine Maschine teilweise oder vollständig Atemfunktionsleistungen für den Patienten außerhalb seines Körpers übernimmt. Dabei wird zwischen veno-venösen und arterio-venösen
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